第一章 否定(Negation)
1.1 动词性的、名词性的和句子性的否定
(A) John didn’t kiss Mary.
这一英语句子可以表达截然不同的意思:
a. It wasn’t John who kissed Mary. (亲吻玛丽的人不是约翰。)
(这里,否定的范围是“约翰” 。)
b. It wasn’t kissing that John did to Mary. (约翰对玛丽做的事不是亲吻。)
(这里,否定的范围是“亲吻” 。)
c. What John did wasn’t “ kissing Mary”. (约翰所做的不是“亲吻玛丽” 。)
(这里,否定的范围是“亲吻玛丽” 。)
d. It wasn’t Mary whom John kissed. (约翰亲吻的不是玛丽。)
(这里,否定的范围是“玛丽” 。)
现在来看一个上古汉语句子:
(B)君不爱其臣。
The ruler doesn’t love his ministers.
这里的“不”否定的范围通常是整个谓语“爱其臣” 。在特定的情况下“不”也可能只否定动词。但是,“不”的否定的范围似乎绝不会是名词性成分。否定名词性成分在上古汉语中要用“非”字结构,如:
(C)君所爱非其臣也。
It isn’t his ministers that the ruler loves.
(D)爱其臣者非君也。
It isn’t the ruler who loves his ministers.
通常认为“不”否定动词性成分,而“非”否定名词性成分。
通行的上古汉语语法书很大程度上忽略了这样的事实:实际上,所谓“名词性否定词(nominal negative) ”的“非”出现在动词性成分前也很常见。1 动词性成分之前和名词性成分之前的“非”,二者之间的关系尤其未得到令人满意的解释。2 结果,对于“非”后加动词性成分这种很常见的结构,我们理解得很随意,也很不充分。
本节将考察动词性成分前“非”的用法,并试图与其“常规”用法“名词性否定”联系起来。
如果在名词性句子中用“不”代替“非”,其句法便会改变:
(1)a白马非马也。
A white horse is not a horse.
b?? 白马不马也。
如果想要使这个“不”字句能够正常表意,第二个“马”就必须额外增加动词义。
现在,思考一下假如动词性结构中的“不”替换成了“非”会如何:
(2) a马不进也。 (《左传·哀公十一年》) 也可参照《论语·雍也》 。3
The horse didn’t go on.
b马非进也。
It wasn’t as if the horse went on.
阐释(2)b 这样的句子时,我们不必将“进”转化成名词。 (2) a 和(2)b的句法看似基本上相同,尽管二者语义上的差别显而易见。显然,“不”只能用于动词前,而“非”并非只能用于名词前。
在许多动词性的从句中,以“非”替换“不”显然不影响其句法和语义:
(3)a吾非至于子之门则殆矣。 (《庄子·秋水》)
b吾不至于子之门则殆矣。
If I hadn’t come to your door, I would have been in danger.
从句中动词前的“非”常常可以替换为“不”,而语义不会因替换发生明显的变化。
主句中动词前的“非”
一般倾向于认为,主句中动词前的“非”否定的范围是整个小句,即倾向于认为这种情况下的“非”既不是动词性也不是名词性否定词,而是句子性(sentential)或小句性(clausal)否定词,可以翻译为“ it isn’t as if…(并不是说……)”。我们来看几个例子:
(4)学者非必为仕,而仕者必如学。 (《荀子·大略》)
It isn’t as if he who studies necessarily comes to act as an official, but someone who acts as an official necessarily conforms to some teaching. Xun 27. 98.
我认为,假如将这里的“非”替换成“不”,那就只是将两个句子连接在一起。而事实上,例(4)只提出了一个主要观点,即“仕者必如学”。前一句只是主要观点的补充,它不会喧宾夺主,成为主要观点。如果我们把“非”翻译为“ it isn’t the case that…(情况并非……) ” ,就遗漏了这个关键的细微差别。“非”在这样的情况下不仅仅否定一个句子,而且还要使它显得不值一提,以过渡到主要观点上。动词前的“非”表达一个否定的判断,而不是报告“某事没有发生”或直接描写“某物不是这样”。 (参见拙作《古汉语语法新议》 ,《东方学报》 1980 年第41 卷〔Current Issues in Classical Chinese Grammar, Acta Orientalia,Vol. 41,1980.〕)
请注意例(4)中没有“也”。如果“非”在主句中位于所谓的介词之前,这种情况尤其普遍:
(5)古之善为道者非以明民,将以愚之。 (《老子》第六十五章)
It wasn’t as if those who in ancient times were good at practising the Way, were using it to enlighten people. They used it to keep them stupid. Lao 65.
(6)非为身体,皆为观好。 (《墨子·辞过》)
It wasn’t as if they were for the body. They were all for external beauty. Mo 6. 19.
(7)故古者列地建国,非以贵诸侯而已。 (《荀子·大略》)
When the ancients parcelled out land and established states it wasn’t as if that was just in order to cause the feudal lords to be honoured. Xun 27. 76.
(8)夫泚也,非为人泚,中心达于面目。 (《孟子·滕文公上》)
It wasn’t as if they sweated for the others (to see ) . Their innermost hearts showed on their faces. Meng 3A5.
(9)非曰能之,愿学焉。 (《论语·先进》)
It isn’t as if I say, I am capable of it. I want to study it. LY11. 24.
(10)非曰必亡〔也〕,言其可亡也。 (《韩非子·亡徵》 ) (有些版本有“也”字。)
It isn’t as if it said that it will necessarily perish. It says that it should perish. HF15(81. 7)
以“ it wasn’t a case of sweating for others(非为人泚) ” “ it wasn’t a case of saying(非曰……) ”等来解释最后三个例子是毫无道理的。既然有足够的证据论证动词前的“非”,就没必要做这样的曲解。
(11)吾非爱道也,恐子之未可与也。 (《吕氏春秋·博志》)
It is not as if I was stingy with words. I am afraid that you cannot be associated with as yet. LSCQ 24. 5.
(12)臣非能相人也,能观人之友也。 (《吕氏春秋·贵当》)
It isn’t that I can physiognomize people. I can look at people’s friends. LSCQ 24. 6.可参照《吕氏春秋·有度》中的例句。4
(13)北方非畏昭奚恤也,其实畏王之甲兵也。 (《新序·杂事》 )
It isn’t as if the Northerners feared Zhao Xi Xie. In fact they are afraid of your soldiers. Xin Xu 2. 3
(14)妄为楚国妖欤?
庄辛对曰:臣非敢为楚妖,诚见之也。 (《新序·杂事》)
“ Are you viciously making up inauspicious stories about Chu?”
Zhuang Xin replied: “ It isn’t as if I would dare to make up inauspicious stories about Chu. I have really seen this. ” Xin Xu 2. 14.
当然,有人可能会反对说,英语中的“ it isn’t as if…”比动词性成分前简单的“非”要繁琐、迂腐得多,但这只是语言风格上的问题,我努力要做的是去厘清动词性成分前“非”的基本语义。此外,注意德语中的“ nicht etwa”是平实的、毫无学究气的,和动词性成分前的“非”在语言风格上可以大致相当。
(15)纥非能害也,知不足也,非敢私请……(《左传·襄公二十三年》)
It isn’t as if I could harm people. My knowledge is insufficient. It isn’ t as if I would dare to make private requests …… Zuo Xiang 23 . 11 .
“不足”中的“不”表明这是主要观点,类似情况如下:
(16)非敢后也,马不进也。 (《论语·雍也》)
It isn’t as if I would dare to come last. My horses wouldn’t go on. LY 6. 15.
比较一下威利(Waley)5对这类“非”的把握:It was not courage that kept me behind. My horses were slow. Waley 1938:119.
(17)非敢为佞也,疾固也。 (《论语·宪问》)
It isn’t as if I would dare to practise clever talking. I disapprove of obstinacy. LY 14. 32.
此处“非”也是摒弃在语境中可能的想法或“实际未曾有”的念头。可以参照例(14)。
葛瑞汉(Graham 1967:9)6提到过这类句子:“‘是’‘非’和语气词‘也’用于动词性小句中,把描写或叙述转换成一个或隐含、或明晰的判断。”这种情况下,“非”出现在动词性成分前(下例省略了一个“也” ) :
臣非敢哭君师,哭臣之子也。 (《公羊传·僖公三十三年》)
“ It is not that we are presuming to weep over Your Majesty’s army;we are weeping over our sons. ”
因此,关键点是“马不进也”这样的句子表述的也是二选一的判断,但不同于“马非进也”。
下面的例子非常棘手,分析一下也许会有用:
(18)此缪公非欲败于殽也,智不至也。 (《吕氏春秋·悔过》)
This was a matter of it not being as if Duke Mu desired to be defeated at Xiao but of his knowledge not reaching (or: being perfect ) . LSCQ 16. 4。可参照《吕氏春秋·乐成》中的例句。7
如果理解成“此非缪公欲败……”,我们可以翻译成“This wasn’t a matter of Duke Mu desiring to be defeated...(这不是缪公欲败的问题……)”;如果理解成“此缪公不欲败……” ,我们可以翻译成“ This was because Duke Mu wanted to avoid defeat...(这是因为缪公想避免失败……) ”
有意思的是,“非”字小句也可以是事后的想法:
(19)君问可,非问讐也。 (《新序·杂事》)
You asked whether he was all right. It wasn’t as if you asked about whether he was my enemy. Xin Xu 1. 5.可参照上文例(15)和“君问可,非问子也。”(《新序·杂事》)
(20)今臣言击之者,故非发而深入也。 (《新序·善谋下》 )
My present suggestion to attack them is certainly not in order to raise an army and enter deeply into their territory...Xin Xu 10. 13 (p. 374)
(21)悲在心也,非在手也。 (《新序·杂事》)
Grief is in the mind. It isn’t as if it was in the hand. Xin Xu 4. 24.
(德语“ etwa”可以轻松区分“不”和“非”在以上句子中的区别:“不在手也〔Er ist nicht in der Hand.〕” “非在手也〔Er ist nicht etwa in der Hand.〕” )
(22)令尹贵矣,王非置两令尹也。 (《战国策·齐策二》 )
Chief Minister is a high rank. It isn’t as if the king appoints two of those. ZGC Ⅰ. 108.
(23)其幸大者,其祸亦大,非祸独及己也。 (《吕氏春秋·遇合》)
As their luck becomes great, so does the disaster. And it isn’t a matter of disaster only reaching these people themselves. LSCQ 14. 7.
我觉得此句中的“非”如果位于“独”之前,读起来会更舒服。
“非独”“非徒”“非特”“非直”
当我们使用“not only”这样的短语时,主要观点不在“ not only”所在的小句中:
(E) a I not only like her I also like her sister. (我非独喜欢她,我也喜欢她的姐妹。)
b I not only like her I love her. (我非独喜欢她,我还爱她。)
上古汉语中“非独” “非徒” “非特” “非直”常常用以表达和“ not only”明显相同的含义。这种组合中从未出现“不”。
偶尔,“ not only”的辖域不是一个名词,而是整个动词短语:
(24)今吾为祭祀也,非直注之污壑而弃之也。上以交鬼之福,下以合欢聚众。 (《墨子·明鬼下》)
Now when we are performing sacrifices, it isn’t as if we are only pouring the libations into the gutter and throwing them way. Above we thereby establish contact with the blessings of the spirits, and below we thereby enjoy ourselves together, gather many people...Mo 31 . 105 .可参照《吕氏春秋·情欲》中的“非徒” 。8 (我怀疑, “非独”不能用在此类句子中。但注意,“非徒”和“非直”也可以指向宾语。)
与位于名词前的“独”连用时,“非”的否定很自然:
(25)非独国有染也,士亦有染。 (《墨子·所染》 )
It is not as if only states are subject to influences. Knights are also subject to influences. Mo 3 . 14 . 可参照《墨子·天志上》中的例句。9
同样,“独”的辖域为名词时,“非”也很自然:
(26)天非独为汤雨菽粟,而地非独为汤出财物也。 (《管子·地数》)
It isn’t as if it was only for the sake of Tang that Heaven rains on pulse and grain, and it isn’t as if it was only for the sake of Tang that the Earth brings forth its wealth. Guan 77(3:83. 9) .
由于上述“非”用于“以”和“为”这类介词前,下例就也会有“非”:
(27)非特以为淫泰也,固以为王天下。 (《荀子·富国》 )
These practices do not only have extravagance as their aim. They certainly have the domination of the world as their aim. Xun 10. 30.
请注意这个例句的句末没有“也”。这并不是偶然的:
(28)故仁人之用国,非特将持其有而已也,又将兼人。 (《荀子·富国》)
Thus when a good man deals with a state, it isn’t as if he was just concerned to hold on to his possession. He is also concerned to unite the people. Xun 10. 115.
(29)察其始而本无生,非徒无生也,而本无形,非徒无形也,而本无气。 (《庄子·至乐》)
I investigated her beginnings, and originally she had no life. Not only had she no life, originally she also had no form. Not only had she no form, originally she had no ether. Zhuang 18. 17.更学究气一点,我们应该翻译成“ It wasn’t as if she only had no life, etc. ” 。
双重否定
上古汉语中没有“马不不进也”这样的句子,就像我们不会听到“ The horse wouldn’t not proceed ”一样。另一方面,我们经常见到“马非不进也”这样的句子,就好像我们常听到“ It wasn’t as if the horse wouldn’t proceed” 。
“非”位于动词前的否定词“不”之前,其功能似乎和其他主句中动词前的“非”一样。它用以否定某个特定的——当下也属于否定状态的——命题,因为该命题没有切中要点,而且只有当至少存在一种例外以及更主要的观点时,使用它才合适。在一般表达中,不会用“非不”简单地表达这样的逻辑:某个否定命题是错误的,即相反的命题是正确的。(中国逻辑学家的专门用法是另外的情况,不在本文讨论范围。10)
只要一个常见的例子就足以说明我的观点:
(30)子言非不辩也,吾所欲者土地也,非斯言所谓也。 (《韩非子·五蠹》)
It isn’t as if your words were not eloquent. But what I want is territory, and not what your words are talking about. HF 49 (241 . 13 ) .
“非”不一定必须直接加在它所要否定的“不”前面:
(31)芷兰生于深林,非以无人而不芳。 (《荀子·宥坐》 )
The zhilan grows in the deep forest, and it isn’t as if because there are no humans it is not fragrant. Xun 28. 38.
这里的“非”否定的不是介词短语,而是“不芳”。 “非”的原因不是介词“以” 。动词“无(lack) ”好像也只能用“非”否定,绝不会用“不” 。我对这种现象的解释是,“不无”简单地等同于“有”,因此而多余。反之,“非无”绝不简单地等同于“有” 。它一般被翻译成“ it isn’t as if there were no...”。
(32)今利非无有也,而民不化上;威非不存也,而下不听从;官非无法也,而治不当名。 (《韩非子·诡使》)
Now it isn’t as if profit was non-existent, but the people do not change for their superiors; It isn’t as if authority was not present, but the inferiors do not obey their superiors; It isn’t as if the officers had no laws, but the administrative performance does not correspond to their titles. HF 45 (314. 4).
英语中表强调的“ do”也能够表达出上古汉语中这种双重否定的效果:“ Profit does exist,…(非无利也……) ” 。
条件句中的“非”
上古汉语中一种通行的表达“ or(或者) ”的方式是用“非”字从句。
(33)凡立国都,非于大山之下,必于广川之上。 (《管子·乘马》)
Generally speaking one should establish the capital of a state either at the foot of a large mountain or on a broad river. Guan 5 (1:16-13) .想一想如果这种结构中的“非”换为“不”会发生什么情况:
(34)女死不于南方之岸,必于北方之岸 ,为吾尸女之易。 (《吕氏春秋·悔过》)
If you are to die, do it either on the southern bank, or on the northern bank, so that I can collect your dead bodies more easily. LSCQ 16. 4.
这里的“不”显然不表示“ unless(除非) ” :它只是表示“ not(不) ” ,不过恰巧是用在一个从句中,因此我们可以直译为“ if you do not do it on the southern bank, be sure to do it on the northern bank. (如果你不死于南岸,一定死于北岸。) ”上古汉语中这种从属关系常常用前置的从句来表达。在这样的句子中,否定词“非”比“不”更合适,因为它否定非核心谓语,上一节我们已看到这一点。就此而言,说一个单独的句子连结词“非”表示“除非”,在理论上是多余的,尽管实际上也没有什么坏处。
(35)夫万民不和,国家不安,失非在上,则过在下。 (《管子·正世》)
If all the people are not in harmony and the state is not at peace, then the mistake lies either with those above or the transgression lies with those below. Guan 47(2:95-5) .可参照《国语·晋语四》 。11
逐字翻译应该是“ If the mistake does not lie with those above, then the fault lies with those below” 。这里从句和主句的主语发生了变化。
“非”在这类从句中的管辖范围问题非常有意思12:
(36)故君人者非能退大臣之议而背左右之讼,独合乎道言也,则法术之士安能蒙死亡之危而进说乎? (《韩非子·人主》)
Now unless a ruler of men is able to set aside arguments from his great ministers as well as representations from his courtiers and conform only (or: independently ) to the voice of reason, how can the“ specialists” brave danger of death to put forward their explanations? HF 52 (362. 14).
(37)今人主非肯用法术之士,听愚不肖之臣,则贤智之士孰敢当三子之危,而进其智能者乎? (《韩非子·人主》)
Now if the ruler of men is not willing to use the “ specialists” but on the contrary listen to his incompetent ministers, then who among the talented and wise knights will dare to face the dangers these three men succumbed to, and put forward their wisdom and abilities? HF 52 (363. 10).
上面两例中,“非”的管辖范围已用斜体标出。
对于例(37)中“非”的辖域范围,我所作的解释在语法上的可接受性至关重要。在这种解读中, “非”不是相当于“ unless ”的句子连接词(sentence-connective) ,而只是从句中的否定。将这里的“非”解释为句子连接词,不仅在理论上多余,而且行不通:假如将例(37)解释为包含两个相连的从句,其中一个由相当于“ unless”的“非”引导,那么另一个从句就一定需要类似“若”这样的成分将其标记为条件。因为没有这样的“若”,所以在我看来这种解释行不通。13
在这一点上,比较一下在大致相似条件下的“不”可能很有启发性。
(38)人主不能明法而以制大臣之威,无道得小人之信矣。 (《韩非子·南面》)
If a ruler of men is not able to make the laws clear and thus to control the authority of the great ministers he has no way of achieving the confidence of the commoners. HF 18 (85. 10).
句子有无明确的主语对我们目前的讨论影响不大。“非若此”或“非如此”这种习语可以理解为“ (if) (things) are not like this(〔如果〕〔事情〕不像这样) ” ,也就是“ otherwise(除此之外) ” 。 (可参照《韩非子·外储说右上》中的例句。14)类似于下例:
(39)非背法专制无以为威。 (《韩非子·南面》 )
If they do not go against the law and exercise autocratic control they have not the means to exercise authority. HF 18 (85. 13).
不需要再举更多这类动词性成分前“非”的例子,不过重要的是,记住和位于动词前使之名词化的“非”相比,这种结构极少有句末词“也”。
这里有一个例外:
(40)非若是也,则臣之志愿少赐游观之间……(《战国策·秦策三》)
If this is not the case, I crave the favour of an audience when you are at leisure. ZGC 93 (I. 61) .
关于名词前“非”的补充说明
有时,名词性成分前的“非”看似和从句的“非”关系密切。“非”看起来很像是从原本处于动词前的位置外置出来的:
(41)非吴丧越,越必丧吴。 (《吕氏春秋·长攻》)
If it is not Wu that ruins Yue, Yue is sure to ruin Wu. LSCQ 14. 5.
(42)非彼死,则臣必死矣。 (《吕氏春秋·悔过》)
If it is not they who have died, I am sure to have died myself. LSCQ 16. 4.
但下例可以说明,这样理解例(41)(42)至少是可行的:
(43)非楚受兵,必秦也。 (《战国策·秦策五》)
If it is not Chu that is attacked by armed force, Qin is sure to be. ZGC 75 (I. 81).
(可以和名词前的“唯”相比较:“唯楚受兵”,是“只有楚接受军队。〔It is only Chu that receives an army.〕” ) 。在下列句子中,“非”像是名词性成分前的“非”,而不是句子前的“非”:
(44)人能弘道,非道弘人。 (《论语·卫灵公》)
Man can make the Way great. It is not the Way that can make men great. LY 15. 29.
上古汉语中表达“ only”的意思,有一种常见的迂回的表述方式,那就是使用在从句中位于名词性成分之前的“非”:
(45)非圣人莫之能为。 (《荀子·儒效》)
Only a sage can do this. Xun 8. 10.
逐字翻译应该是“ As for non-sages, none of them can do it” 。
(46)非于是子莫足以举之,故举是子而用之。 (《荀子·君道》 )
Only this man was qualified to be raised, so he raised and employed him. Xun 12. 91.
注意,用“于”表明话题是主句心理上的宾语。
例(45)(46)中“非”似乎标示一个否定的话题,而不是一个名词性从句。但看看下例:
(47)苟非圣人,莫之能知也。 (《荀子·礼论》)
Only a sage is able to understand this. Xun 19. 121.
连词“苟”在这里有什么作用? 我们似乎应该译为“ If someone really isn’t a sage he cannot understand this” 。但这种情况为什么用“莫”而不用“不” ? 在我看来,这个模糊之处表明,上古汉语中类指性主语(generic subjects)和从属性小句关系密切。 (参见Harbsmeier 1978:219-257。)
从句中名词性成分前的“非”的范例很容易找到,在此就不一一说明了。
我们看到,“非”可以否定非核心谓语和非谓语的名词。但是,名词性谓语呢? 显然,“非”可以用来在这样的否定句中作分类界定:
(48)非吾徒也。 (《论语·先进》)
He is not my disciple! LY 11. 17.
名词性谓语在这里表达主要判断。如果这样翻译可能不对:“ It isn’t as if he was my disciple!” “非”在名词性句子中没有“准连接主从关系(quasi-subordinating) ”的功能。而且,我认为这类名词性句子中的分类所表达的判断是另一个主要观点的背景。(当然这是典型情况,并不是绝对的。)如果在说“非吾徒也”之前孔子先说了一句“不从我” ,那么,“非吾徒也”看上去就不大可能是用作一个主要观点的背景。实际上,孔子紧接着“非吾徒也”说了下面一句话,这正是典型的用法:
(49)小子鸣鼓而攻之可也。 (同上)
It will be right for you to beat the drums and attack him! Ibidem.
与之相关的一个关键问题是:同样的意思好像可以用更简单的动词性句子表达,为什么有时候古人要用名词性句子呢?
(50)回也,非助我者也。 (《论语·先进》)
Hui is not the sort of person who helps me. LY 11. 4.
为什么孔子不说“回不助我(Hui doesn’t help me) ” ? 在我看来,因为他想要听话人注意到他接下来要讲的话:
(51)于吾言无所不说。 (同上)
He rejoices in everything I say. Ibidem.
然而,有很多名词性句子无论如何都不能理解为准从属句。这些句子之所以属于名词性,通常和它们的主位组织(thematic organization)15有关:
(52)夫仁义辩智,非所以持国也。 (《韩非子·五蠹》)
Goodness, righteousness, eloquence and cleverness are not the means by which one maintains a state. HF 49 (341. 15).
在这类句子中,动词性成分前的“非”和名词性成分前的“非”完全失去了关联。真的是这样吗? 例(52)这样的句子不是意在表达别的东西才是“持国”的方法吗?
1 到目前为止,蒲立本(Pulleyblank 1959)对“非”的处理是最好的,但他没有考虑动词前“非”的用法,而只认为“非”否定名词性成分。
2 参见Cikoski 1976:87ff.西科斯基(Cikoski 1976)认为“核心句(nuclear sentence)表达的是某种过程发生了”。 (他所谓的“核心句”也就是我讲的“动词性句子〔verbal sentence〕”。)但显然有些动词性句子描述的是状态或性质,而不是过程。关于我所说的名词性句子(nominal sentence),西科斯基认为“同位关系的句子(appositional sentence)表达的是某种东西被贴上标签或归类”。但下文类似于例(52)这样常见的名词性句子明显和标注或归类无关。西科斯基进一步提出:“这两种表达式可以合并起来形成一个复合概念,即某种过程的发生是一个永恒的事实。其合并通过将核心句结构嵌入同位语句子结构中而完成。”但是西科斯基所描述的这种合并只有在将主语归类为某一种过程的句子中才行得通。而我们显然不会这么阐释下文2(b)这样的句子:否认“马”有“进”的标签。而西科斯基也不会这样认为,所以他的解释似乎有些含糊不清。
3 译者案:指《论语·雍也》中的“非敢后也,马不进也”。
4 译者案:指《吕氏春秋·有度》中的“夏不衣裘,非爱裘也,暖有余也”。
5 译者案:指英国汉学家亚瑟·威利(Arthur Waley)翻译的《论语》,后文章节皆同。
6 译者案:指英国汉学家葛瑞汉(Angus Charles Graham),葛瑞汉曾翻译《庄子》 《列子》等典籍。
7 译者案:指《吕氏春秋·乐成》中的“史起非不知化也,以忠于主也”。
8 译者案:指《吕氏春秋·情欲》中的“非徒万物酌之也,又损其生以资天下之人,而终不自知” 。
9 译者案:指《墨子·天志上》中的“非独处家者为然,虽处国亦然”。
10 剥离词语的惯常含义,把它们变成专业术语,这是所有逻辑学家的特点。
11 译者案:指《国语·晋语四》中的“其非官守,则皆王之父兄甥舅也”。
12 注意,不是所有动词前出现的“非”都是严格意义上的动词性成分前的“非”,称作小句前的“非” (pre-clausal)更好。确定这种小句前的“非”的辖域也非常有意思。(a)圣人之静也,非曰静也善,故静也;万物无足以铙心者,故静也。 (《庄子·天道》) When the sage is quiet it isn’t as if he said “ quietude is good” and therefore was quiet, it is rather that none of the myriad things can disturb his mind, therefore he is quiet. Zhuang 13. 2.我们肯定不会译为“When the sage is quiet it isn’t as if he said‘quietude is good’ and therefore he is quiet”。 “非”的辖域不是“曰”,而是整个斜体字部分。 “非”的辖域结束的地方,就是主要观点开始的地方。
13 在《战国策》中我发现了历史条件句(historical conditonals),如:(b)齐非急以锐师合三晋,必有后忧。 (《战国策·齐策一》) If Qi does not quickly use her elite soldiers and join up with (the forces of) the three component states of Jin she is bound to have troubles afterwards. ZGC I. 99/100.
14 译者案:指《韩非子·外储说右上》中的“欲治其国,非如是不能听圣知而诛乱臣”。
15 译者案:韩礼德(Halliday)提出主位结构理论,从功能的角度将话语区分为主位和述位。主位是小句的开始点,也是信息的起点,承载的是已知信息;而述位是需要表达的未知信息,是主位的发展。作者在这里所说的句子的名词性和主位组织有关,应是指小句的“主位”部分表述已知信息,不是句子着意表达的信息,重点在后文。